Abstract
The controversy surrounding establishing houses of worship in Indonesia reflects the tension between universal human rights values and cultural relativism institutionalized through legal decentralization. In the context of Aceh and Bali, regional authority in regulating religious life has resulted in regulations rooted in local values. This study uses a qualitative approach to study legal documents, including national regulations, the Qanun Aceh, and the Bali Governor's Regulation, supported by secondary data from academic studies and reports from relevant institutions. The analysis results show that legal decentralization strengthens local authority in determining the requirements for establishing houses of worship, but at the same time complicates the licensing process and opens the door to discrimination against minority groups. Policies in both regions place religious freedom as a conditional right that depends on the social consensus of the majority. This freedom is reduced to a relative right that must be guaranteed by the state (local government). This condition shows that regional regulations related to houses of worship do not align with the principles of freedom of religion and non-discrimination as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the ICCPR.
References
Ardiansah. “The Settlement of Law Problem on Establisment of Worship Houses in Indonesia.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 175 (July 24, 2018): 012171. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012171.
Ariany, Lies, and Risni Ristiawati. “The Urgency Of Creating Regional Regulations For Supporting The Implementation Of Regional Autonomy.” Syariah: Jurnal Hukum Dan Pemikiran 19, no. 1 (May 27, 2019): 75. https://doi.org/10.18592/sjhp.v19i1.2652.
Arifin, Ridwan, Hanif Helmi, Ngaboawaji Daniel Nte, Waspiah Waspiah, and Dian Latifiani. “The Adversity on Establishing Places of Worship: Has Religious Freedom Failed in Indonesia?” Legality : Jurnal Ilmiah Hukum 29, no. 1 (February 15, 2021): 93–113. https://doi.org/10.22219/ljih.v29i1.15317.
Arifinsyah, Arifinsyah, and Ahmad Sofian. “Regulation on Worship House Establishment and Implication towards Minority Relation of Religious People Majority in Indonesia.” International Journal of Social Sciences 4, no. 1 (April 22, 2021): 106–13. https://doi.org/10.31295/ijss.v4n1.1396.
Çamur, Adil. “Embracing Diversity, Upholding Universality: A Moral Discourse on Human Rights.” In Sosyal Bilimlerde Akademik Araştırma ve Değerlendirmeler- VI. Özgür Yayınları, 2023. https://doi.org/10.58830/ozgur.pub402.c1770.
Crouch, Melissa. “Implementing the Regulation on Places of Worship in Indonesia: New Problems, Local Politics and Court Action.” Asian Studies Review 34, no. 4 (December 2010): 403–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2010.527921.
Damayanti, Angel. “Muslim-Christian Relationships in Indonesian Reform Era Within The Framework of Democracy: Case Study of Bandung, Bekasi and Bogor (1998-2015).” In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Social and Political Sciences (ICSPS 2017). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2991/icsps-17.2018.3.
Darma Putra, I Nyoman. “13 Puja Mandala: An Invented Icon of Bali’s Religious Tolerance?” In Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating Religious Identities within Majority-Minority Relationships in Bali and Lombok, 330–53. BRILL, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004271494_015.
Engeland, Anicée Van. “Human Rights: Between Universalism and Relativism.” In International Conflict and Security Law, 93–113. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_5.
Farha, Imamatunnisa. “Pembangunan Gereja Di Aceh Singkil Masih Terkendala Izin.” Aceh Journal National Network, May 26, 2023. https://www.ajnn.net/news/pembangunan-gereja-di-aceh-singkil-masih-terkendala-izin/index.html.
Guyer, Paul. “Arguing for Freedom of Religion.” Roczniki Filozoficzne 70, no. 4 (December 30, 2022): 365–94. https://doi.org/10.18290/rf2204.13.
Kiftiyah, Anifatul, and Tri Sutrisno. “Aligning Pancasila Values in The Regulation For Worship House Construction in Indonesia.” Pancasila: Jurnal Keindonesiaan 3, no. 1 (April 27, 2023): 47–56. https://doi.org/10.52738/pjk.v3i1.136.
Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia. Kajian Komnas HAM RI Atas PBM Nomor 9 Dan 8 Tahun 2006 Tentang Pedoman Pelaksanaan Tugas Kepala Daerah Dalam Pemeliharaan Kerukunan Umat Beragama Dan Pendirian Rumah Ibadah. Jakarta: Komisi Nasional Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia, 2020. https://www.komnasham.go.id/files/20201219-kajian-komnas-ham-ri-atas-pbm--%24VBFI34A.pdf.
Lindsey, Tim, and Helen Pausacker, eds. Religion, Law and Intolerance in Indonesia. 1 [edition]. | New York : Routledge, 2016. | Series: Routledge law in Asia 15: Routledge, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657356.
Lubis, Muhammad Rizki Akbar. “Human Rights And Relativism Through The Lens Of Developing Nations Case Study Of Indonesia’s Ratification On CEDAW.” International Law Discourse in Southeast Asia 2, no. 1 (January 31, 2023). https://doi.org/10.15294/ildisea.v2i1.63262.
Luxiana, Kadek Melda. “Merasa Dihalangi Beribadah, ISKCON Laporkan Gubernur Bali Ke Komnas HAM.” detiknews, 2021. https://news.detik.com/berita/d-5597690/merasa-dihalangi-beribadah-iskcon-laporkan-gubernur-bali-ke-komnas-ham.
Mabruroh. “Di Negeri Mayoritas Muslim, Warga Indonesia Timur Kesulitan Bangun Masjid.” Republikas, February 22, 2023. https://khazanah.republika.co.id/berita/rqh85f451/di-negeri-mayoritas-muslim-warga-indonesia-timur-kesulitan-bangun-masjid.
Mahmudi, Mukh. Imron Ali, and M Syaeful Anam. “Pendirian Rumah Ibadah Di Indonesia.” JURNAL PENELITIAN, July 1, 2021, 77–88. https://doi.org/10.28918/jupe.v18i1.3469.
Makeieva, Olena, and Hanna Rybikova. “UNIVERSALITY OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A CROSS-CULTURA ANALYSIS.” Scientific Works of National Aviation University. Series: Law Journal “Air and Space Law” 1, no. 70 (March 31, 2024): 50–55. https://doi.org/10.18372/2307-9061.70.18480.
Marchenko, Andrii. “RELIGION AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN DISCOURSE AND PRACTICE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND UNIVERSALISM.” Sophia. Human and Religious Studies Bulletin 20, no. 2 (2022): 36–40. https://doi.org/10.17721/sophia.2022.20.8.
Marpaung, M M, and H Susetyo. “Canning: Syariah Law Versus Human Rights in Aceh, Indonesia.” In Challenges of Law and Governance in Indonesia in the Disruptive Era II, 117–28, 2021. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85132463886&partnerID=40&md5=9750fed613451881df8c25f85874e1c7.
Marzuki, Suparman. “Assessing the Conformity of Human Rights Paradigm in Indonesian Legislation and the Rulings of the Constitutional Court.” Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 12, no. 4 (July 5, 2023): 239. https://doi.org/10.36941/ajis-2023-0110.
———. “Perspektif Mahkamah Konstitusi Tentang Hak Asasi Manusia.” Jurnal Yudisial 6, no. 3 (2013): 189–206. https://doi.org/https://jurnal.komisiyudisial.go.id/index.php/jy/article/view/98.
Metro Bali. “Masyarakat Bebalang Minta Pembangunan Gereja Dihentikan.” Metro Bali, June 11, 2012. https://metrobali.com/masyarakat-bebalang-minta-pembangunan-gereja-dihentikan/.
Muzakkir, Muzakkir, and M. Anzaikhan. “Qanun and House of Worship Conflict: The Irony of the Aceh Government in Aceh Singkil.” Journal of Ecohumanism 3, no. 7 (October 3, 2024): 511–22. https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i7.4221.
Myroniuk, O. “Universality of Human Rights: Theoretical Dimension.” Analytical and Comparative Jurisprudence, no. 1 (March 20, 2024): 56–59. https://doi.org/10.24144/2788-6018.2024.01.8.
Pastika, Mangku, I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, Sri Putri Purnamawati, and Relin D.E. “Tracking the Footprints of the Veda Teachings Implementation Study on Hindus in Bali.” International Journal of Engineering, Science and Information Technology 5, no. 3 (July 3, 2025): 415–18. https://doi.org/10.52088/ijesty.v5i3.973.
Philpott, Daniel. “Why Religious Freedom Is a Human Right.” The American Journal of Jurisprudence 68, no. 3 (March 28, 2024): 177–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajj/auae003.
Ridwansyah, Muhammad, Saldi Isra, Enny Nurbaningsih, and Khairul Fahmi. “Regulation of Cabinet Relations with the Government of Aceh within the Framework of a Presidential System.” Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun 13, no. 2 (May 30, 2025): 1345–68. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v13i2.1607.
Rozikin, Rozikin, Ermaya Suradinata, Deti Mulyati, and Mansyur Achmad. “Policy Analysis Regarding The Maintenance Of Religious Harmony And The Establishment Of Houses Of Worship (Implementatation Study of the Joint Regulation of Minister of Religion And Home Affair Minister Number 9/8 of 2006 in Cilegon City, Banten Province).” Eduvest - Journal of Universal Studies 4, no. 5 (May 24, 2024). https://doi.org/10.59188/eduvest.v4i5.1227.
Ruslan, Idrus, Mawardi Mawardi, and Ahmad Afnan Anshori. “Deconstruction of the Policy for the Establishment of Houses of Worship in Indonesia.” Religious: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama Dan Lintas Budaya 6, no. 2 (August 29, 2022): 261–70. https://doi.org/10.15575/rjsalb.v6i2.21396.
Schnabel, Eliska. “Public Resistance to New Houses of Worship.” The Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 9, no. 3 (November 18, 2024): 642–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/rep.2024.22.
Sihombing, E.N.A.M., E Purnama, B Ginting, and F A Nasution. “The Regional Regulation Concerning Management of Zakat Viewed from the Principles of Formulation of Legislation.” International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology 29, no. 6 (2020): 1098–1103. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85083981496&partnerID=40&md5=3b759ad77f94ce0948df071f5d2fbd78.
Smet, Stijn. “State Neutrality and Religious Diversity in Europe.” Oxford Journal of Law and Religion 11, no. 1 (February 11, 2023): 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojlr/rwac019.
Suhadi, Suhadi, Dani Muhtada, and Andi Gazly Satrya Amal. “Legal Reconstruction of the Establishment of Places of Worship in Indonesia: A Legal-Political Analysis within the Framework of Land Use and Spatial Planning Law.” Journal of Indonesian Legal Studies 9, no. 2 (December 21, 2024): 1181–1208. https://doi.org/10.15294/jils.v9i2.19162.
Syifa Afandi, M., Zulkifli Zulkifli, and A’ang Subiyakto. “The Polemic of Worship Houses Construction in Indonesia: An Islamic and Positive Law Perspective.” In Proceedings of the 4th International Colloquium on Interdisciplinary Islamic Studies in Conjunction with the 1st International Conference on Education, Science, Technology, Indonesian and Islamic Studies, ICIIS and ICESTIIS 2021, 20-21 October 2021, Jambi. EAI, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.20-10-2021.2316312.
Tampubolon, Manotar, and Norazlina Abdul Aziz. “Violating Christian Minority Freedom of Religion in Indonesia.” The International Journal of Religion and Spirituality in Society 11, no. 1 (2021): 235–53. https://doi.org/10.18848/2154-8633/CGP/v11i01/235-253.
Ujianto, Agus, Saridin Saridin, Kholid Mawardi, Siti Mahmudah, and Sadari Sadari. “State Intervention in the Establishment of the House of Worship to Realize Religious Harmony.” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION RESEARCH STUDIES 03, no. 04 (April 7, 2023). https://doi.org/10.55677/ijssers/V03I4Y2023-04.
Witte, John, Joel A. Nichols, and Richard W. Garnett. “The Essential Rights and Liberties of Religion.” In Religion and the American Constitutional Experiment, 59–92. Oxford University PressNew York, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197587614.003.0004.